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FOOD AND NUTRITION: ROLE OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS
Digestion in the month. The digestion of food begins in the mouth with the chewing of food and its mixing with saliva. Chewing is important because it increases the surface area of the food particles for later digestive action. Saliva contains amylase, a starch-splitting enzyme, but food remains in the mouth for such a short time that only a small amount of starch can be broken down to dextrins and maltose.
Digestion in the stomach. Food passes from the esophagus into the stomach by relaxation of the cardiac sphincter. Following the entrance of food into the stomach the sphincter closes, thus preventing the regurgitation of food. The stomach serves as a temporary storehouse for food, brings about partial digestion of protein, and prepares food for further digestion in the small intestine. The food is continually churned and mixed with gastric juice until it reaches a liquid consistency known as chyme. Rhythmic contractions move the chyme toward the pylorus where small portions are gradually released through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum.
Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid, pepsin, rennin, mucin, and other substances. Hydrochloric acid has several important functions: (1) it swells the proteins so as to make them more easily attacked by the enzymes; (2) it provides the acid medium necessary for the action of pepsin; (3) it increases the solubility of calcium and iron salts so that they are more readily absorbed; and (4) it reduces the activity of harmful bacteria that may have been present in the food.
Pepsin, a protease, splits proteins into smaller molecules called proteoses and polypeptides. Very little digestion of carbohydrates and fats occurs in the stomach. In the upper (cardiac) portion of the stomach the salivary amylase continues to act upon starch to change it to dextrins and maltose. As soon as the food mass is mixed with hydrochloric acid this action ceases. Lipase in the stomach has some effect on emulsified fats as in milk, cream, butter, and egg yolk, but most of the hydrolysis of fats takes place in the small intestine.
Digestion in the small intestine. Most of the digestive activity takes place in the small intestine, which includes the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. Bile, manufactured by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, is essential for fat digestion. As soon as fats enter the duodenum the secretion of a hormone, chokcystokinin, is stimulated. Cholecystokinin causes the gallbladder to contract and to release bile into the duodenum. Bile emulsifies the fats, that is, breaks them down into tiny globules so that the fat-splitting enzymes have greater contact with the fat molecules. Bile, being highly alkaline, neutralizes the acid chyme and provides the alkaline reaction necessary for the action of the intestinal enzymes.
As soon as acid chyme enters the duodenum, two hormones, secretin and pancreozymin are produced. They are carried by the bloodstream to the pancreas where they stimulate the secretion of pancreatic juice. The pancreas also pours its secretions into the duodenum. Pancreatic amylase splits starch to maltose; a protease, trypsin, breaks down proteins and polypeptides to much smaller molecules; and lipase, steapsin, completes the digestion of fats to fatty acids and glycerol.
A hormone, cnterociinin, stimulates the flow of intestinal juice from glands in the walls of the small intestine. The intestinal juice contains protein and sugar-splitting enzymes. Lactase splits lactose to the simple sugars glucose and galactose; maltase acts on the maltose molecule to yield glucose; and sucrase brings about the hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose and fructose. A group of enzymes known as peptidases completes the breakdown of proteins and polypeptides to amino acids.
Function of the large intestine. The large intestine includes the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. Digestion and the absorption of nutrients have been essentially completed by the time the food mass reaches the large intestine, but much water and digestive juices are reabsorbed so that the intestinal contents gradually take on a solid consistency. The feces contain the fibers of food, small amounts of undigested food, bile salts, cholesterol, mucus, bacteria, and broken-down cellular wastes.
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